Diatom-Based Artificial Antigen-Presenting Cells: A Novel Approach for Adaptive Immune Modulation

Artificial antigen-presenting cells (aAPCs) offer a precise system for modulating immune cells, effectively addressing major challenges in immunotherapy, such as unintended effects. Diatoms have attracted considerable interest as natural templates for biomaterials owing to their surface characteristics, which can replicate those found in cellular structures. In this study, we introduced the creation of calcium-modified diatoms that act as artificial antigen-presenting cells. This innovative strategy aims to enhance immunological interactions and emulate the functions of natural antigen-presenting cells. Our findings indicate that amine polymerization on calcium-modified diatoms improved the attachment of immunomodulatory proteins (anti-CD28 and anti-CD3) to the diatom surface, thereby promoting specific antibody-antigen interactions with human T cells, as evidenced by the formation of immunological synapses, which initiate targeted immune responses. Through costimulatory signaling, we determined robust expression of T cell activation markers, not only during early activation (CD69) but also sustained at a later time point (CD25), associated with increased T cell proliferation. Metabolically, diatom-based aAPCs promote glycolysis over mitochondrial oxidative respiration to meet the elevated energy demand for immune activation and homeostasis. Our findings suggest that the immunofunctionalization of calcium-modified diatoms offers a promising strategy for the development of bioinspired, functional aAPC, which are adaptive immunomodulatory systems, and hold future potential as immunotherapeutic platforms for diseases such as cancer and autoimmunity.